Phase discrimination through oxidant selection in low-temperature atomic layer deposition of crystalline iron oxides.

Control over the oxidation state and crystalline phase of thin-film iron oxides was achieved by low-temperature atomic layer deposition (ALD), utilizing a novel iron precursor, bis(2,4-methylpentadienyl)iron. This low-temperature (T = 120 °C) route to conformal deposition of crystalline Fe3O4 or α-Fe2O3 thin films is determined by the choice of oxygen source selected for the second surface half-reaction. The approach employs ozone to produce fully oxidized α-Fe2O3 or a milder oxidant, H2O2, to generate the Fe(2+)/Fe(3+) spinel, Fe3O4. Both processes show self-limiting surface reactions and deposition rates of at least 0.6 Å/cycle, a significantly high growth rate at such mild conditions. We utilized this process to prepare conformal iron oxide thin films on a porous framework, for which α-Fe2O3 is active for photocatalytic water splitting.

Oxidatively induced reductive elimination from ((t)Bu2bpy)Pd(Me)2: palladium(IV) intermediates in a one-electron oxidation reaction.

This communication describes studies of oxidatively induced C-C bond-forming reductive elimination from ((t)Bu(2)bpy)Pd(II)(Me)(2). With the outer-sphere oxidant ferrocenium, the data are consistent with a mechanism involving Pd(III) and Pd(IV) intermediates, with C-C bond formation occurring from the latter. The reaction with Ag(+) appears to proceed via a Pd-Ag(+) adduct, which then undergoes inner sphere electron transfer to generate Pd(III). In contrast, the slower benzoquinone reaction forms ethane by a different pathway that does not involve methyl group scrambling and generates Pd(0) products.

Computational modeling of oxygen isotope effects on metal-mediated O2 activation at varying temperatures.

Oxygen equilibrium isotope effects ((18)O EIEs) upon the formation of metal superoxide and peroxide structures from natural abundance O(2) are reported. The (18)O EIEs determined over a range of temperatures are compared to those calculated on the basis of vibrational frequencies. Considering all vibrational modes in a "full frequency model" is found to reproduce the empirical results better than "cut-off" models which consider only the most isotopically sensitive modes. Theoretically, the full frequency model predicts that (18)O EIEs arise from competing enthalpic and entropic influences resulting in nonlinear variations with temperature. Experimental evidence is provided for an increase in the magnitude of the EIE, in some instances implicating a change from inverse to normal values, as the temperature is raised. This finding is not easily reconciled with the common intuition that (18)O EIEs arise from a reduction of the O-O force constant and attendant changes in zero point energy level splitting. Instead a dominant entropic effect, as described here, is expected to characterize isotope effects upon reversible binding of small molecules to metal centers in enzymes and inorganic compounds.

Inner-sphere mechanism for molecular oxygen reduction catalyzed by copper amine oxidases.

Copper and topaquinone (TPQ) containing amine oxidases utilize O2 for the metabolism of biogenic amines while concomitantly generating H2O2 for use by the cell. The mechanism of O2 reduction has been the subject of long-standing debate due to the obscuring influence of a proton-coupled electron transfer between the tyrosine-derived TPQ and copper, a rapidly established equilibrium precluding assignment of the enzyme in its reactive form. Here, we show that substrate-reduced pea seedling amine oxidase (PSAO) exists predominantly in the Cu(I), TPQ semiquinone state. A new mechanistic proposal for O2 reduction is advanced on the basis of thermodynamic considerations together with kinetic studies (at varying pH, temperature, and viscosity), the identification of steady-state intermediates, and the analysis of competitive oxygen kinetic isotope effects, (18)O KIEs, [kcat/KM((16,16)O2)]/[kcat/KM((16,18)O2)]. The (18)O KIE = 1.0136 +/- 0.0013 at pH 7.2 is independent of temperature from 5 degrees C to 47 degrees C and insignificantly changed to 1.0122 +/- 0.0020 upon raising the pH to 9, thus indicating the absence of kinetic complexity. Using density functional methods, the effect is found to be precisely in the range expected for reversible O2 binding to Cu(I) to afford a superoxide, [Cu(II)(eta(1)-O2)(-I)](+), intermediate. Electron transfer from the TPQ semiquinone follows in the first irreversible step to form a peroxide, Cu(II)(eta(1)-O2)(-II), intermediate driving the reduction of O2. The similar (18)O KIEs reported for copper amine oxidases from other sources raise the possibility that all enzymes react by related inner-sphere mechanisms although additional experiments are needed to test this proposal.

Isotopic probing of molecular oxygen activation at copper(I) sites.

Copper-dioxygen (CuO2) adducts are frequently proposed as intermediates in enzymes, yet their electronic and vibrational structures have not always been understood. [Cu(eta1-O2)TMG3tren]+ (TMG3tren = 1,1,1-tris{2-[N2-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylguanidino)]ethyl}amine) features end-on (eta1) O2 coordination in the solid state. Described here is an investigation of the compound's solution properties by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, density functional calculations, and oxygen isotope effects. The study yields two major findings. First, [Cu(eta1-O2)TMG3tren]+ is paramagnetic due to a triplet electronic structure; this is in contrast to other copper compounds where O2 is bound in a side-on manner. Second, the oxygen equilibrium isotope effect upon O2 binding to copper(I) (18O EIE [triple bond] K(16O16O)/K(16O18O) = 1.0148 +/- 0.0012) is significantly larger than those determined for iron and cobalt eta1-O2 adducts. This result is suggested to reflect greater ionic (CuII-O2-I) character within the valence bond description. A revised interpretation of the physical origins of the 18O EIEs upon O2 binding to redox metals is also advanced along with experimental data that should be used as benchmarks for interpreting 18O kinetic isotope effects upon enzyme reactions.

Oxygen isotope effects upon reversible O2-binding reactions: Characterizing mononuclear superoxide and peroxide structures.

Identifying intermediates in catalytic oxidation reactions requires the development of new probes of structure and mechanism. Reported here are proof-of-concept studies of oxygen (18O) isotope effects upon reversible O2-binding reactions of classic inorganic compounds. It is shown that the 18O equilibrium isotope effects may be used to differentiate structures where O2 is bound as a side-on peroxide ligand versus an end-on superoxide ligand. The application of 18O equilibrium isotope effects to the interpretation of 18O kinetic isotope effects and the study of O2 activation mechanisms is also discussed.